Assignment paper no. 207

Name :- Riddhi H. RathodName :- Riddhi H. Rathod

Roll No.: 17

Enrollment No.: 4069206420220025

Paper no: 207

Paper name:- Contemporary Literature

Assignment Topic - Crisis of Climate and Immigration in 'Gun Island'

Sem: 4 (Batch 2022- 2024)

Email i'd:- riddhirathod1213@gmail.com

Submitted to: Smt S.B. Gardi Department

 

About Author and Novel :-

Amitav Ghosh, an acclaimed Indian-born author renowned for his literary works exploring history, migration, and globalization, has once again captivated readers with his 2019 novel, "Gun Island." This compelling narrative follows the journey of Deen Datta, a rare-book dealer from Kolkata, as he embarks on a quest to Venice, seeking answers to a mysterious legend surrounding the goddess of snakes and firearms.

As Deen's journey unfolds, he encounters a diverse array of characters whose paths cross his own, challenging his beliefs and forcing him to confront the undeniable impact of climate change on our world. Ghosh's masterful storytelling weaves together rich, evocative language with a profound exploration of environmental themes, creating a literary tapestry that resonates deeply with readers.


"Gun Island" is a must-read for fans of Ghosh's work and for anyone seeking a thought-provoking exploration of the intersection between fiction and environmental activism. With its atmospheric writing and powerful messages, this novel cements Ghosh's position as one of the most prominent voices in contemporary English-language fiction, addressing the pressing issues of our time with unparalleled eloquence and insight.

Crisis of Climate and Immigration in 

'Gun Island' 

Environmental Degradation in the Sundarbans:

The novel Gun Island by Amitav Ghosh highlights the pressing ecological issues facing the Sundarbans mangrove region in the Bay of Bengal. The protagonist, a book dealer named Dinanath Datta, visits the region and learns about the threat of rising sea levels due to climate change that is endangering the legendary shrine of Manasa Devi and the local folklore. The Sundarbans is described as a fragile frontier where commerce and wilderness clash. The formation of dead zones in the water due to agricultural runoff, pollution from a refinery, and fossil fuel emissions is exacerbating the environmental degradation. 

A character named Pia, monitoring dolphins in the region, explains how the dead zones are rapidly expanding due to chemical fertilizer residues. The rivers are being polluted by agricultural pollutants and chemicals dumped by an influential refinery group. The novel portrays the conflict between unbridled urbanization, profit motives, and the preservation of the unique natural ecosystem of the Sundarbans. It underscores the threat of climate change and environmental pollution to this ecologically vulnerable region and the risk of losing its rich cultural heritage forever to rising seas.

In the Sundarbans, water contamination and existing dead zones result in the death of fish, crabs, dolphins, and other marine life from both rivers and the sea. It ruins the livelihoods of the poor who earn a living through fishing or crab collecting. The "vicious circle of poverty" theory argues that as the poor in developing countries depend heavily on natural resources for their livelihoods, a vicious cycle of poverty - environmental degradation - poverty is created. In Amitav Ghosh's novel Gun Island, we see how the detrimental impacts of anthropogenic water pollution deteriorate the condition of poverty-stricken indigenous people by ruining their professions and forcing them to migrate elsewhere to survive. This climate-induced human displacement from the Sundarbans in contemporary times resembles that of the Gun Merchant in the ancient legend used in the text, who fled his homeland to save his life from the destructive forces of climate change symbolized by the fury and revenge of the Goddess Manasa whom the Merchant disrespected. 

Climate-Induced Human Displacement:

Cinta, an Italian historian in the novel, offers a pragmatic interpretation of the ancient legendary story of the Gun Merchant. The parallel journey of the climate-driven migrants of the past (the Gun Merchant) and the present (the underprivileged from the Sundarbans) elucidates that the legend is "an apocryphal record of a real journey to Venice". According to Cinta, the Merchant's "homeland, in eastern India, is struck by drought and floods brought on by the climatic disturbances of the Little Ice Age; he loses everything including his family, and decides to go overseas to recoup his fortune". Pia despondently describes the present environmental condition of the Sundarbans and the world, "We're in a new world. No one knows where they belong any more, neither humans nor animals". The narrative authentically informs the reader that outcomes of anthropogenic environmental devastations like global warming, sea-level rise, and water pollution pose an existential threat to all living beings during the climate apocalypse.

The narrative depicts how the Bhola Cyclone of 1970 devastated the coastal areas of the Sundarbans and the inland area called Lusibari. Villages were demolished by powerful storm surges, leaving only bare skeletons of trees and dead bodies floating everywhere, "half-eaten by wild animals". The hamlets were robbed of inhabitants by the cyclone. The situation worsened with the immigration of refugees and people from East Pakistan, escaping political mayhem, social unrest, and trauma of massacre, aggravating the dire predicament of the indigenous people where there was already lack of freshwater, food, and healthcare. The precariousness of Nature and life in this coastal region held local people back from development, rendering them deprived and socially marginalized.

Inhabitants live a storm-tossed and cyclone-ravaged life of incessant struggle, forced to adapt to frequently changing climatic conditions. Horen, a fisherman, stopped fishing as his trawlers and boats capsized in Aila Cyclone in 2009. Farmers left as soil became uncultivable due to saltwater intrusion from extreme weather and sea-level rise. According to Ghosh et al. (2015), "sea level rise owing to global warming, anthropogenic drivers, and land subsidence eventually affects the mangrove forest and vulnerable coastal communities". The resolute young people take the bold decision of moving abroad, albeit illegally, to earn money for an improved life. The number of traffickers increases after each cyclone, exploiting the crisis to trap the poor, sending women to brothels and able-bodied men to worksites.

Tipu, a local Sundarbans boy, explains to Dinanath that climate change and resultant cyclones are pertinent causes behind the exodus, as the dirt-poor and illiterate cannot survive if they don't move out. According to Last et al. (1998), "climate change and sea-level rise are likely to make some places uninhabitable, leading to major increases in migration". The poor cannot bribe forest guards to collect forest products, and high soil and water salinity make cultivation and fishing unsuitable, forcing migration. As Katha Kartiki (2011) remarks, "as climate change affects resource availability and reshapes boundaries, communities will migrate to access natural resources and livelihoods, likely driving conflict over limited resources and national borders". Gun Island showcases how climatological alterations and ecological damage cease the abundance of the mangrove region's natural resources, ruining Sundarbans' poor livelihoods and leading to conspicuous mass migrations.

The novel Gun Island by Amitav Ghosh poignantly depicts how the internet age and globalization have created new avenues for human smuggling operations to exploit the dreams of underprivileged people seeking better lives abroad. While digital technology provides access to information that spurs illegal migration by exposing the poor to tantalizing images of prosperous foreign lands, it also enables the unchecked growth of trafficking networks - the largest clandestine industry eclipsing even the drug trade. Characters like Tipu and Rafi from the remote Sundarbans region, who gain tech access from childhood, get lured by online visions into pursuing treacherous illegal journeys facilitated by smugglers. Their初tireat innocence and hope for opportunities steadily dissipates as they face the brutal realities of being confined, abused, extorted, and nearly killed while crossing borders. From dreaming of a dignified future, they become dehumanized refugees, social outcasts stripped of identity, at the mercy of global immigration politics that reduces them to exploited resources in audacious human conveyors plying the underbelly of globalization.

Both Tipu and Rafi come from the Sundarbans region, but unlike Rafi, Tipu does not suffer from poverty as he enjoys a luxurious life even in his remote village. Pia provides Tipu and his mother Moyna with all sorts of comforts since Tipu's father, who worked for Pia, died while saving her life. So Tipu has not been forced to illegally migrate to earn money unlike other illegal migrants from the Sundarbans. Instead, he willingly chooses to flee his place for job opportunities in a prosperous foreign city, which he fails to get in Kolkata due to prevailing social bias and marginalization of the natives of the Sundarbans.

The narrative informs the reader that the indigenous people of this mangrove area are looked down upon in Kolkata due to their financial weakness and lack of progress. When Tipu's schoolmates in Kolkata learn that he is from the Sundarbans, they consider him a Dalit and start humiliating him, saying that only whores and servants come from his place. Moreover, his classmates from influential families ensure his expulsion because Tipu beats a boy for his insulting remarks about the Sundarbans. Tipu illegally crosses the national border with forged papers, lying to his family about his job and present location.

Socio-Political Dynamics of Migration:

While tracking Tipu's journey, Pia, who is also Tipu's legal guardian, contacts an NGO that deals with refugees and migrants. A member of the NGO informs Pia that Tipu's story is quite common in the present global context because "over the last couple of years there had been a huge increase in reports of teenage boys and young men leaving home without informing their families." After searching Tipu's bag, Pia learns about his growing obsession for Venice and anticipates that he will end up there.

The narrative highlights the harsh realities and brutalities faced by illegal migrants and refugees, such as torture, deportation, detention, and falling prey to transnational organized crime. The biblical place Sinai becomes a perilous place for illegal migrants and refugees, and a hub for the trade in human organs. The narrative informs the reader that "the connection house was cunningly designed: the refugees' dungeon-like cells were below ground and difficult to detect." The place is full of smugglers who demand money from refugees, and if they are unable to pay, they are even robbed of their organs, which are sold to Europeans.

Ghosh depicts the harsh realities and brutalities meted towards refugees in the present, which are comparable to the slave trade in the past. According to Gisella, Cinta's niece and a documentary filmmaker, the traffickers have connections everywhere, like the criminal underworld, the highest political and judicial places, the police, and even European governments.

The narrative offers insight into the strategies of the newly elected right-wing government in Venice, putting off illegal migration or the refugee crisis, which is the biggest political concern in Europe. Gisella starts working on a documentary about the recent wave of humans crossing into Italy, as there has been an influx of illegal immigrants across the mountains, from the far sides of the Mediterranean and the Adriatic. Besides, there are thousands of refugees crossing the sea in boats from Egypt and Libya. Some of them have been rescued, while many die.

Gisella seeks Dinanath's help as a translator for her documentary, as the refugees are mostly from the Middle East, Africa, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. She informs him that in Italy and Europe, immigration and the refugee crisis are two current topics of socio-political discussion. She also updates Dinanath,

"Our new right-wing government came to power because they promised to be tough on migration."

The narrative draws attention to the uncertain lives of the homeless and the negative stereotypes and biases against migrants, who are often made scapegoats for social ills. The refugees of the Blue Boat, who are victims of xenophobia and hostility, violate the rules of international immigration. The Blue Boat is anticipated to be from Egypt, and the refugees are Eritreans, Egyptians, Ethiopians, Sudanese, and some Bengalis from India or Bangladesh.

Gisella feels the need for a documentary to investigate the mass movement from the perspective of human rights as well as from a socio-political angle, echoing the concerns of people worldwide about the reasons, feelings, and hopes of the migrants. According to Fozlul Hoque Choudhury or Palash, a Bangladeshi immigrant in the text, the human rights activists of Italy decide to stand by the refugees of the Blue Boat, sending their boats to deal with the right-wing activists who aim at driving the refugees back.

Palash observes that the Blue Boat becomes symbolic of various socio-ecological problems such as climate change, social inequality, capitalistic policies, corruption, the arms trade, the oil industry, and the world's callousness towards the afflicted refugees. The protagonist encourages Piya to "put a human face on" the anonymous refugees of the Blue Boat by throwing light on their displaced lives and struggle, as they have lost their identities. The refugees are characterized by heterogeneity, as they are from diverse countries, cultures, and backgrounds, and they have different reasons for migrating arising from various socio-political factors.

Exploitation of Illegal Migration:

Dinanath finds similarities between the suffering of the illegal migrants on the Blue Boat and the indentured workers from the Indian subcontinent and Africa who were transported to the New World to work on plantations as part of the Atlantic slave trade. The narrative states that "then, as now, trafficking in human beings had been an immensely lucrative form of commerce", highlighting the shared afflictions during migration. However, there is a fundamental difference in the mode of migration. The system of indentured labor, like chattel slavery, was controlled and directed by European imperial powers. The coolies and working-class were often unaware of their destination and the laws governing their lives, becoming slaves to serve the Empire's economic and commercial purposes. In contrast, the present-day migrants like Rafi, Tipu, and others in Venice deliberately planned to migrate illegally. The narrative notes that

"the world had changed too much, too fast; the systems that were in control now did not obey any human master; they followed their own imperatives, inscrutable as demons".

Economic Implications and Labor Dynamics:

Cinta remarks that 21st-century Italians depend on the labor of immigrants who have left their own countries and clean dirty places in Italy to earn a living. The narrative states, "Bengalis have been settling in the Veneto for a long time. Earlier they came to work in the shipyards of Mestre and Marghera. But now many more have come and in Venice they do everything- they make pizzas for the tourists, they clean the hotels, they even play the accordion at street corners". This highlights how undocumented migrants cater to the global supply chain's demand for cheap labor due to their illegal status.

Western countries are marked by multiculturalism and transculturalism due to legal immigration, like Dinanath and Pia earning their livelihood abroad and experiencing cross-cultural enrichment. However, many illegal immigrants and refugees like those on the Blue Boat represent an "overturning of a century-old project that had been essential to the shaping of Europe". Some, like Rafi and his fellow undocumented migrants, successfully reach Venice and find jobs without the foreign government's knowledge.

Parallelism between Sundarbans and Venice:

Ghosh subtly juxtaposes Venice and the Sundarbans. Dinanath notes the Venetian landscape's resemblance to the Bengal countryside and the Sundarbans. Rafi also finds similarities between Venice and the Sundarbans in terms of climate-induced flooding, crabs in the water, and collapsing embankments. Dinanath and Cinta suffer from the climatological flood in Venice, with Dinanath shocked at being "so utterly alone and helpless, so completely at the mercy of the earth". This parallel between the Sundarbans and Venice highlights how the climate crisis is not confined to one region but is ever-pervasive, as portrayed through the disastrous wildfire in Los Angeles, illustrating how the earth is gradually becoming uninhabitable due to anthropogenic global warming.

Conclusion -

The novel also highlights the harsh realities these migrants encounter, including inhumane treatment, loss of identity, psychological trauma, and even death at the hands of traffickers or border security forces. Their struggles symbolize the broader refugee crisis exacerbated by globalization and environmental degradation.

Gun Island serves as a powerful commentary on the interconnectedness of human migration, climate change, and the persisting legacies of colonialism and economic disparities in the modern world. Through its blend of myth and contemporary narratives, the novel compels readers to confront the harsh realities faced by those seeking refuge, while also challenging the prevailing attitudes and policies that perpetuate their suffering. 

References -

Clark, Alex. “Gun Island by Amitav Ghosh review – climate and culture in crisis.” The Guardian, 5 June 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/books/2019/jun/05/gun-island-amitav-ghosh-review.

Amitav Ghosh - Reading and Conversation on Gun Island. Institute of the Humanities and Global Cultures, 2019, https://youtu.be/pixQalTh0xQ.

Francis, Ashna. “(PDF) Gun Island: A Tale of Myth, Migration and Climate Change.” 2021, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354938252_Gun_Island_A_Tale_of_Myth_Migration_and_Climate_Change. Accessed 25 April 2024.

Assignment Paper no - 208

                            

Name :- Riddhi H. Rathod

Roll No.: 17

Enrollment No.: 4069206420220025

Paper no: 208

Paper name:- Contemporary Translation Studies

Assignment Topic - What is Comparative Literature today?

Sem: 4 (Batch 2022- 2024)

Email i'd:- riddhirathod1213@gmail.com

Submitted to: Smt S.B. Gardi Department

                        What is Comparative Literature today?

                                                                       -  Susan Basnett

The article seems to introduce the field of comparative literature by defining it as the study of texts across cultures, emphasizing its interdisciplinary nature and its focus on examining connections and patterns in literature across different times and places.

It suggests that comparative studies often begin with a desire to look beyond the boundaries of a single subject area or discipline, or from noticing apparent similarities between texts and authors from different cultures, which then prompts further exploration and comparison. Without directly quoting extended passages, I've aimed to capture the key points about how the article frames the origins and core concerns of comparative literary studies. Please let me know if you need any clarification or have additional context to provide.

Comparative literature is a rich and complex field of study that has been the subject of ongoing debates and discussions. To address your questions:

1. The object of study in comparative literature is the analysis and comparison of literary works from different cultures, languages, and traditions. It explores the relationships, influences, and interconnections between diverse literary traditions.

2. Comparison is the central objective and methodology of comparative literature. By juxtaposing and analyzing literary works from different contexts, comparatists aim to uncover universal themes, patterns, and shared human experiences that transcend cultural boundaries.

3. If individual literatures have cannons, a comparative canon might consist of significant literary works that have had a profound impact across multiple cultures and have influenced the development of literature globally.

4. Comparatists can select what to compare based on various criteria, such as shared themes, genres, historical periods, cultural influences, or theoretical frameworks. The selection process often involves identifying connections, contrasts, or cross-cultural dialogues that can yield insightful interpretations.

5. Comparative literature is generally considered a distinct discipline with its own methodologies, theoretical frameworks, and academic traditions. However, some scholars view it as a field of study that intersects with and draws upon various disciplines, such as literary studies, cultural studies, translation studies, and interdisciplinary approaches.

Regarding the crisis of comparative literature, René Wellek and others have raised concerns about the field's identity, scope, and methodological challenges. The rise of postcolonial and cultural studies has also influenced the direction of comparative literature, challenging traditional Western-centric approaches and advocating for more inclusive and diverse perspectives.

Benedetto Croce's critique questioned the distinctiveness of comparative literature from literary history, arguing that the act of comparing and contextualizing is inherent in the study of literature itself. This debate highlights the ongoing discussions around the boundaries and methodologies of comparative literature. Comparative literature continues to evolve as a dynamic field, grappling with questions of representation, canon formation, and the complexities of cross-cultural literary analysis in an increasingly globalized world.

Francis Jost claimed that comparative literature is 'an overall view of literature, of the world of letters, a humanistic ecology, a literary Weltanschauung, a vision of the cultural universe, inclusive and comprehensive'. Comparative Literature is viewed as some kind of world religion, an instrument of universal harmony.

Wellek and Warren, in their 'Theory of Literature' (1949), suggested that comparative literature "will make high demands on the linguistic proficiencies of our scholars. It asks for a widening of perspectives, a suppression of local and provincial sentiments, not easy to achieve." For Wellek and Warren, they further state that, 

                                        "Literature is one; as art and humanity are one."

 A decade after the publication of 'Theory of Literature,' Wellek was already discussing the crisis in comparative literature. The great waves of critical thought that swept through one after the other shifted attention away from the activity of comparing texts and tracking patterns of influence between writers towards the role of the reader. And as each new wave broke over the preceding one, notions of single, harmonious readings were shattered forever.

In the 1950s and early 1960s, high-flying graduate students in the West turned to comparative literature as a radical subject, because at that time it appeared to be transgressive. By the late 1970s, a new generation of high-flying graduate students in the West had turned to Literary Theory, Women's Studies, Semiotics, Film and Media Studies, and Cultural Studies as the radical subject choices, abandoning Comparative Literature. Yet even as that process was underway in the West, comparative literature began to gain ground in the rest of the world, particularly in Post-colonial countries. However, this was not based on any ideal of universalism but rather on the very aspect of literary study that many Western comparatists had sought to deny: the specificity of national literatures.

Homi Bhabha sums up the new emphasis in an essay discussing the ambivalence of post-colonial culture, suggesting that:

 "Comparative literature must find its disciplinary advantages by engaging with ambivalent temporalities of the 'modern'; no longer synonymous with the epoch of modernity, the 'modern' survives as a contested concept in a range of critical practices whose common denominator is the unhousing of systematic knowledges and their relocation in the everyday."

Bhabha highlights how comparative literature in the postcolonial context needs to grapple with the ambiguities and contradictions inherent in the idea of the "modern." The modern is not a monolithic, universal concept, but rather a site of contestation and renegotiation. Comparative literary studies must inhabit and explore these ambivalent spaces, unsettling established knowledge systems and finding new meanings in the lived realities and experiences of the everyday.

This resonates with Devy's linking of comparative literature in India to the rise of nationalism. The remapping of the literary terrain was intimately tied to how the modern Indian nation imagined and defined itself against and within the legacies of colonial modernity. Comparative literature became a means to resurface repressed histories, identities and epistemologies in forging a new national self-consciousness.

Wole Soyinka and a range of African critics have exposed the pervasive influence of Hegel, who argued that African culture was 'weak' in contrast to what he claimed were higher, more developed cultures, and who effectively denied African history. Today, we have a very diverse picture of comparative literary studies that varies depending on the context in which it is taking place.

Terry Eagleton's explanation of the rise of English ties in with the aspirations of many early comparatists for a subject that would transcend cultural boundaries and unite the human race through the civilizing power of great literature. As the question of what to include and exclude from an English syllabus is a contentious one, Comparative Literature has been called into question by the emergence of alternative schools of thought.

The vexed question of Shakespeare in India, a canonical writer hailed in the nineteenth century as the epitome of English greatness, poses a problem for Indian students. They must grapple with Shakespeare not only as a great figure in European literature but also as a representative of colonial values – two conflicting Shakespeares, in effect. One approach to addressing this issue is to study Shakespeare comparatively, examining his introduction into Indian cultural life and comparing his work with that of Indian writers.

The growth of national consciousness and awareness of the need to move beyond the colonial legacy has significantly contributed to the development of comparative literature in many parts of the world, even as the subject enters a period of crisis and decay in the West.

Ganesh Devy's argument that comparative literature in India coincides with the rise of modern Indian nationalism is important, because it serves to remind us of the origins of the term 'Comparative Literature' in Europe, a term that “first appeared in an age of national struggles”, when new boundaries were being erected and the whole question of national culture and national identity was under discussion throughout Europe and the expanding United States of America.

Another rapidly expanding development in literary studies, and one which has profound implications for the future of comparative literature, is 'translation studies'. Comparative literature has traditionally claimed translation as a sub-category, but this assumption is now being questioned. The work of scholars such as Toury, Lefevere, Hermans, Lambert and many others has shown that translation is especially significant at moments of great cultural change. 

Evan-Zohar argues that extensive translation activity takes place when a culture is in a period of transition: when it is expanding, when it needs renewal, when it is in a pre-revolutionary phase, then “translation plays a vital part”. In contrast, when a culture is solidly established, when it is in an imperialist stage, when it believes itself to be dominant, then translation is less important.

As English became the language of international diplomacy in the twentieth century (and also the dominant world commercial language), there was little need to translate, hence the relative poverty of twentieth-century translations into English compared with the proliferation of translations in many other languages. When translation is neither required nor wanted, it tends to become a low status activity, poorly paid and disregarded.

Conclusion - 

Comparative literature has always claimed translation as a sub-category, but as translation studies establishes itself firmly **as a subject based in inter-cultural study** and offering a methodology of some rigor, both in terms of theoretical and descriptive work, so comparative literature appears less like a discipline and more like a branch of something else. Seen in this way, the problem of the crisis could then be put into perspective, and the long, unresolved debate on whether comparative literature is or is not a discipline in its own right could finally and definitely be shelved.

References - 

Bush, Roland E. “Comparative Literature: A Critical Introduction.” 9 November 2017, https://www.jstor.org/stable/44323029?seq=1. Accessed 25 April 2024

 

Assignment - 206 African Literature

Name :- Riddhi H. Rathod

Roll No.: 17

Enrollment No.: 4069206420220025

Paper no: 206

Paper name:- African Literature

Assignment Topic - Feminist Study of The Joys of Motherhood

Sem: 4 (Batch 2022- 2024)

Email i'd:- riddhirathod1213@gmail.com

Submitted to: Smt S.B. Gardi Department

Introduction of Author :- 

Buchi Emecheta is considered one of the most prominent female African writers, celebrated for her novels chronicling the experiences of African women in Nigeria and abroad. Emecheta was born Florence Onye Buchi Emecheta on July 21, 1944 in Lagos, Nigeria. A member of the Ibo people, she grew up hearing her aunt tell stories and decided at an early age that she wanted to be a writer. She married at age 16 and moved with her husband and two young children to London in 1962. There she worked as a librarian at the British Museum, studied sociology at London University, became a community worker in Camden, and began writing stories that were based on her life, and published them in New Statesman magazine. These soon became The Ditch (1972) and Second-Class Citizen (1974), both collected in Adah’s Story (1983). 

Emecheta’s other work includes fiction—

1. The Slave Girl (1977), 

2. The Joys of Motherhood (1979),

3. Destination Biafra (1982), 

4. Double Yoke (1982), and 

5. The Rape of Shavi (1983) 

Feminist Study of The Joys of Motherhood

 Gender Inequality  

For many years, African women have been relegated to the position of secondary importance in African society. This is seen in the Igbo women Emecheta portrays in her work, The Joys of Motherhood. The lives of Igbo women are carefully regulated by traditional laws and are enslaved to their traditions, which subjugate them to certain customs. That situation stems mainly from the nature of African societies which are mostly patriarchal. In The Joys of Motherhood, African women are presented as second-class citizens and as a result, there is a preference for boys over girls. In this text, the gender issue created is that it is better to give birth to a male child than a female one in the patriarchal Ibo society where the story is set. Consequently, premium is placed on the male child to the extent that when Nnaife's two wives, Adaku and Nnu Ego, become pregnant and Nnu Ego gives birth to a set of twins which are girls, Adaku is not sure about how Nnaife will receive the news. Nnu Ego and Adaku begin to imagine their husband's reaction in this conversation:

   'Your first set of girls, senior wife,' Adaku said by way of congratulations. 'Hm, I know, but I doubt if our husband will like them very much. One can hardly afford to have one girl in a town like this to say nothing of two'. 

Buchi Emecheta's novel portrays gender inequality in Igbo society. 

• Preference for Sons: Having sons is highly valued. Nnu Ego's disappointment upon giving birth to twins who are girls is shown in the conversation: "Your first set of girls, senior wife,' Adaku said... 'One can hardly afford to have one girl...". Nnaife's anger at the birth of girls is evident in his reaction: "Nnu Ego, what are these? Could you not have done better?".
  
  

• Sons vs. Daughters: The value placed on sons creates tension. Adaku grieves her dead son more than Nnu Ego grieves her deceased daughter: "O God, why did you not take one of the girls and leave me with my male child". Nnu Ego even sees her daughters as a means to support her sons: "They are boys... You are to sell to put them in a good position...".
  
  

• Favouritism: Nnu Ego escapes blame in a conflict because she has a son: "Don't you know... you are committing an unforgivable sin? ... If Nnaife had been married to only you, you would have ended his life... You have children, but they are girls...".
  This portrayal of valuing sons over daughters exposes gender bias within Igbo society.

 

 Sex-Role Distinctions 

A dominant belief that permeates the novel Joys of Motherhood is the sex-role distinctions. The various roles, duties and expectations from male and female are implicit in the novel. African women are depicted as people whose permanent place is the kitchen, hence, the popular quote; 

"Female's Education Ends in the Kitchen".

 Consequently, men and women are socialised at birth to perform different roles; boys go out to play whereas girls do household chores. This text presents a scene where Adaku beckons Oshia, a male child and Dumbi, a female child to go and fetch water from the tap for the evening's meals and what comes out of Oshia's mouth is unfortunate:

 "I am not going! I am a boy, why should I help in the cooking? That's a woman's job".Oshia declines to play with his friends but Nnaife adds to this problem by instructing him to "go out and stop listening to female gossip". 

The traditional domestic roles of the woman include house chores, taking care of the babies or children and satisfying the man's sexual desire. All these are depicted in Buchi Emecheta's Joys of Motherhood. There is also the belief of 'striving' or 'trying' to be 'a better wife' and 'the best wife'; Nnu Ego did all her best to please her husband. This is shown when she said: "Nnaife is the head of our family. He owns me, just like God in the sky owns us. So even though I pay the fees, he owns me. So in other words he pays" . This suggests that a woman typically learns how to 'please' the man, and she is the one who is expected to make the relationship or marriage work. 

Another traditional belief is that the man demands sex and dictates 'sex time'. Nnu Ego lamented about her first sex with Nnaife, how he didn't allow her to rest after her journey from Ibuza to Lagos. The narrator says "He demanded his marital right as if determined not to give her a chance to change her mind. She had thought she would be allowed to rest at least on the first night after her arrival before being pounced upon by this hungry man, her new husband".

From the foregoing, it is obvious that gender roles are rampant in African society and it sometimes leads to the subordination of women and this is what the African feminists are fighting against.

 Wife Inheritance 

Here we discuss wife inheritance, a tradition in Igbo society depicted in Buchi Emecheta's "The Joys of Motherhood". Widows were expected to marry a deceased husband's brother, securing their financial well-being and keeping wealth within the family.

• Inheritance as Tradition: "Nnu Ego knew that her father could not help her...four I inherited on the death of relatives." This quote highlights how inheriting wives was a common practice.
  
  

• Women as Property: The passage criticizes the objectification of women by comparing them to inherited possessions.
  
  

• Nnu Ego's Resistance: Nnu Ego exemplifies resistance against the practice. She disapproves of her husband inheriting Adaku due to financial strain and potential marital conflict. ("Nnu Ego fought back tears...")
  
  

Gender Violence 

Women are presented as people that could be beaten at will in The Joys of Motherhood. Nnaife goes out to play guitar with his friends and on returning he finds a bowl which is carefully covered. He predicts that the bowl might be containing his food but to his dismay, he finds the three pounds that he has given to his wives carefully covered in the bowl. Nnaife's shock and dismay is expressed as:

 "Now what is this?" he asked in bitter anger. His voice was tremulous and he directed his displeasure at Nnu Ego, who seemed to shrink under his stare" . 

In a reply to Nnaife's question, Adaku answers her husband saying: The food money you gave us is too small. Nwakusor and other men give their wives double the amount you give us .When we go to the market, we have to keep wandering from stall to stall in search of bargaining, because we can never afford anything . 

Brutal reality of domestic violence and gender inequality in "The Joys of Motherhood". Nnaife's violent response to Adaku's failure to provide food underscores the normalized oppression of women in Igbo society. Buchi Emecheta exposes the entrenched cultural norms that perpetuate female subjugation, with no intervention indicating societal acceptance of wife-beating. Adaku's defiance hints at the potential for resistance against oppressive norms, though met with violence. This critique resonates with African feminist ideals of challenging norms to empower women. Emecheta's portrayal emphasizes the urgent need for societal transformation to dismantle such dehumanizing practices. The passage underscores the broader goal of African feminism: to confront and dismantle oppressive cultural norms, enabling women to reclaim their agency and dignity.

Men’s Dominance and Control (Patriarchy) 

Patriarchy is a social system where males hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. In the domain of the family, fathers or father-figures hold authority over women and children. Some patriarchal societies are also patrilineal, meaning that property and title are inherited by the male lineage. Historically, patriarchy has manifested itself in the social, legal, political, religious, and economic organisation of a range of African cultures. 

This issue of patriarchal structures and the hierarchical relation between men and women is an important feminist theme in the novel "The Joys of Motherhood." Women in the novel are portrayed as subordinate to men and lacking autonomy. Nnu Ego reflects on this, asserting:

 "God, when will you create a woman who will be fulfilled in herself, a full human being, not anybody's appendage?.. After all, I was born alone and I shall die alone. What have I gained from this? Yes, I have many children… I am a prisoner of my own flesh and blood. Is it such an enviable position? Men make it look as if we must aspire for children or die. That's why when I lost my first son I wanted to die, because I failed to live up to the standard expected of me by the males in my life, my father and my husband and now I have to include my sons. But who made the law that we should not hope in our daughters? We women subscribe to that law more than anyone until we change all this, it is still a man's world which women will always help to build".

The novel portrays women as commodities subject to men's whims, exemplified by Agbadi, a chief who discards wives for new conquests. He marries multiple women but grows bored, seeking excitement with mistresses. Agbadi's neglect leads to tragedy when his senior wife, Agunwa, falls ill after overhearing him with a mistress, Ona. Some attribute her illness to sacrificial loyalty, but others recognize the emotional toll of witnessing her husband's infidelity. This narrative underscores the objectification of women and the destructive impact of male entitlement in the society depicted.

This emotional portrayal of women's plight in a patriarchal society underscores their lack of autonomy and means to reject the choices and preferences of men, even when those bring them pain, as in Nnu Ego's case. This forms the basis for African feminists seeking to carve out space for women to freely make their own choices, rather than living at the whims of men.

Lack of Freedom 

lack of freedom and imprisonment experienced by African women, exemplified through the character of Nnu Ego in Emecheta's "Joys of Motherhood." Nnu Ego is portrayed as confined by her devotion to her children, her status as a senior wife, and the cultural mandate for women to bear numerous children, particularly sons, for societal validation.

Nnu Ego's struggles in providing for her children and her poignant questioning of societal expectations are central to the narrative. Her poignant reflection, "Yes, I have many children but, what do I have to feed them on? In my own life, I have to work myself to the bone to look after them; I have to give them my all," encapsulates her sense of entrapment. This dialogue highlights her emotional burden and the disparity between societal ideals and the harsh reality of her existence.

Nnu Ego's assertion of feeling like a prisoner due to cultural and household norms is significant. She laments, "I am a prisoner of my own flesh and blood. Is it such an enviable position?" This introspection underscores her desire for autonomy and questions the societal constructs that confine her.

Also draws attention to the pervasive influence of customs and traditions, as noted by Lightfoot-Klein's observation: "Custom in Africa is stronger than domination, stronger than the law, stronger even than religion." This insight underscores the enduring power of cultural norms in shaping the lives of African women, often at the expense of their freedom and agency.

The novel illuminates the plight of African women through the lens of Nnu Ego's character, highlighting their struggle for autonomy amidst entrenched cultural expectations and societal pressures.

 Motherhood

Motherhood is often viewed as an inherent set of feelings and behaviours that arise from pregnancy and childbirth. However, it is an experience profoundly shaped by social and cultural contexts. In many African societies, motherhood carries significant cultural and religious meanings – with societal expectations of what a mother should be, as well as religious connotations. 

The concept of motherhood has been central in African traditions, with writers, both men and women, encouraging women to bear children. Women without children are often seen as incomplete or even evil. Motherhood is considered a blessing, granting a woman higher status and respect in society, almost to the point of mythology.

Emecheta's novel, The Joys of Motherhood, exemplifies this through the character of Nnu Ego. She values children above material gains, even sacrificing her trading business during pregnancy to avoid miscarriage, preferring poverty to the risk of losing a child. As the narrator conveys, 

"She had reminded herself of the old saying that money and children don't go together. If you spent all your time making money and getting rich, the gods wouldn't give you any children."

In the patriarchal Ibuza society depicted, women are primarily remembered for their children, not men. This is evident when Nnaife, Nnu Ego's husband, purposely misses his son Oshie's departure, reasoning, "Will they remember me when I'm old? No, they will remember only their mother." After her death, Nnu Ego is renowned in Ibuza, with a grand funeral paid for by Oshie to honour "what a good son he was." Even then, some accuse her of "giving all to her children," reflecting the notion that a mother's joy lies in selfless devotion to her offspring.

The novel portrays women as primarily valued for their ability to bear children. Those unable to conceive, like Nnu Ego initially, are deemed "useless" and less than human by their husbands, subjected to verbal abuse and derogatory labels like "Iyawo" – a woman without a child.

Girl-Education

Another issue that has eaten deep into African society is the girl-education issue. The female gender is seen as inferior beings and so because of this, so much importance is not given to their education. Nnu Ego's daughters could not go to school because the education of their brothers is considered more important. The only important thing that the female folks have is the payment of their brideprice which would probably be used to sponsor the male folks to school. Taiwo complained about the boys not joining them to hawk and her mother replies: They have to go to their lesson, Taiwo: and stop moaning. You are a girl you know.  This shows that Nnu Ego is not concerned about the girls' education. She is only after Oshia and Adim' schooling. The narrator also confirms this: …The Owulum twins were very beautiful. They did not go to school.

 The lack of access to education for girls in many African societies, as depicted in the novel. The dialogue and quotes you provide highlight the deep-rooted gender bias and discrimination, where educating boys is prioritized over girls. Nnu Ego's response to Taiwo clearly reflects this mindset - that a girl's role is not seen as needing education, but rather to contribute to domestic labour and eventually fetch a bride price to fund the education of male children.

The narrator's observation about the Owulum twins not attending school further reinforces this gender disparity in education. Their beauty is noted, suggesting their value lies in their prospects for marriage, rather than intellectual or personal development through schooling.

This systemic undervaluing of girls' education not only perpetuates gender inequality but also holds back entire societies from reaching their full potential. Denying girls access to knowledge and skills severely limits their life opportunities and ability to contribute fully to their communities and nations.

While reflecting a harsh reality in many parts of Africa during the time depicted, the novel poignantly shines a light on this unjust practice. Increasing educational opportunities for all children, regardless of gender, remains a crucial challenge that still requires dedicated efforts to uproot deeply entrenched patriarchal norms and beliefs about female inferiority.

Conclusion 

"The Joys of Motherhood" exposes a range of feminist issues in African society. The novel highlights gender inequality, rigid gender roles, wife inheritance, violence against women, male dominance, and limitations on female education and choice. This analysis reveals the ongoing struggle for gender equality in Africa, where patriarchal structures continue to favour men's perspectives and limit women's opportunities. Despite the efforts of some women to challenge these norms, change remains slow. The study emphasizes the value of feminist critical discourse analysis in understanding the social and cultural factors that shape women's experiences in Africa. This approach aims to empower women and achieve gender equality, not to demonise men, cultures, or religions.

Reference -

Barman, Himakshi. "Patriarchy and the Joys' of Motherhood: A Study of Buchi Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood." Feminism and Literature: Text and Context (2015): 29-39.

Barman, Himakshi. "Patriarchy and the'Joys' of Motherhood: A Study of Buchi Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood." Feminism and Literature: Text and Context (2015): 29-39.

Barfi, Zahra, and Sarieh Alaei. “Western Feminist Consciousness in Buchi Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood.” Western Feminist Consciousness in Buchi Emecheta's The Joys of Motherhood, 8 October 2014, https://d-nb.info/1192204476/34. Accessed 23 April 2024.

Snitow, Ann. "Feminism and motherhood: An American reading." Feminist Review 40.1 (1992): 32-51.

Umeh, Maria, and flora Nwapa. “(PDF) Feminism in Literature: A Study of Emecheta's the Joys of Motherhood and Nwapa's Efuru.” ResearchGate, 22 December 2023, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/376441389_Feminism_in_Literature_A_Study_of_Emecheta's_the_Joys_of_Motherhood_and_Nwapa's_Efuru. Accessed 23 April 2024.

words - 3073